Population Pharmacokinetic–Pharmacodynamic Analysis of Zolpidem in Healthy Volunteers: Covariate Contributions to Variability in CNS Responses

Population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) modeling was used to explore covariate effects on zolpidem PKs and PDs in 30 healthy Korean volunteers (15 males, 15 females) who received a single 10 mg dose. The dataset included 325 PK observations and 388 observations each for the digit symbol substitution test (DSST), choice reaction time (CRT), and visual analog scale (VAS). A one-compartment PK model with transit compartment absorption and first-order elimination was developed, followed b