From theoretical energy to practical utilization: interfacial stability, transport kinetics, and cell-level design in high-energy lithium-metal batteries

Lithium-metal batteries are widely regarded as one of the most promising routes toward cell-level energy densities beyond the limit of conventional graphite-based lithium-ion batteries. However, the practical energy delivered by a lithium-metal cell is not determined only by the theoretical capacity of the cathode or the low potential of lithium metal. In many cases, the accessible energy is gradually consumed by voltage decay, interfacial impedance growth, parasitic reactions, inactive componen