Integrative characterization of Huachansu against hepatocellular carcinoma: chemical profiling, Network pharmacology, and in vivo evidence of apoptosis and gut microbiota remodeling

BackgroundHepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains a major global health burden, and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) offers complementary therapeutic advantages. Although Huachansu (HCS), a clinically used TCM preparation, contains key bioactive components, including bufalin (BFL) and cinobufotalin (CBF), its antitumor mechanisms remain unclear.MethodsLC–MS profiling was performed to characterize the chemical constituents of HCS. Network pharmacology analysis was conducted by integrating predic